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What does the calendar mean ?

Why 'January'? Why 'Friday' ? Each of these names has a meaning.

The names of the days of the week are Anglo-Saxon and Norse (from old Norway, the act of making something, thoroughly clean). Sun-day is the day for worshipping the sun. Mon-day is the day for worshipping the moon. Tues-day is the day for worshipping Tiw, the Norse god of war.

Wednes-day really means Woden's Day. Woden (or Odin) was the most powerful God. He was the father of Tiw and Thor. Thor was the Norse god of thunder. Thurs-day is named after him.

Woden had a wife called Fregga. Fregga's Day became Friday. But Saturday is different. Saturday is not named after a Norse god. Instead, it is Roman. It is named after Saturn. Saturn is a planet, of course. But, to the Roman. Saturn was the god of agriculture.

The ancient Roman year had ten months. Most were named after gods. January is named after Janus. Janus was a god with two faces. He could look both forwards and backwards, into the past and into the future. In Latin, Ianua means 'door'. Janus guarded the door into the new year.

February comes from Februs, the Roman purification ceremony. March is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. In Europe, March is often a month of storms and thunder.

April comes from the Latin aperire, which means 'to open'. In this month, the skies open and it rains. Also, spring comes. New flowers and leaves open. Then comes May, when plants are new and beautiful. May is named after Maia the goddess of youth and beauty.

June is the height of the year. This is full summer. June is named afer Juno, the queen of the gods, wife of Jupiter.

After June, in the old Roman calendar, comes September, October, November and December. In Latin Sept means seven, oct means eight, novem means nine and decem means ten.

But September is the ninth month. What happened ?

The Roman calendar was too short. It became out of step with the seasons. Farmers did not know when to plant their crops.

So the Emperor Julius Caesar made a new calendar, and added another month. It was called after him, July. The next emperor was Augustus Caesar. He added the month of August. Both emperors made sure they had long months, 31 days.

But now September, October, November and December were put back two months.

So their names no longer fit.

The Julian (after Julius Caesar) calendar was adjusted again in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. It is now called the Gregorian calendar. It has some big advantages over the Muslim calendar. The Muslim calendar is based on the moon. The Gregorian calendar is based on the sun and the seasons. It can tell you when to plant your crops. Gregorian days are the same throughtout the world. Our Muslim days depend on the full moon, which is different in different countries. Lebaran is on different days is Indonesia and in Egypt.

The Origin of Kindergarten (nursery school)

THROUGHOUT the world most children start first grade when they are 5, 6 or 7 years old. But many children start going to school before first grade. They attend kindergarten or nursery school classes. These classes may be part of a country's state or public school system or they may be run by private institutions.

UNITED STATES

In the public school system of the United States, kindergarten is the class in elementary school that comes before the first grade. Children who are 4 or 5 years old may start school in kindergarten and at the end of that year go on to the first grade. In the U.S.A. most nursery schools are privately run. Children from 2 to 5 years old may attend.

The kindergarten program is designed to help each child grow in independence, solve problems, develop skills, and live comfortably with others. Children in kindergarten are at play most of their day, but they are constantly learning through their play. They learn to plan activities, to follow simple directions, and to adjust to school life.

Young children also learn from each other. They learn to express their mind or ideas in speech, as well as in artistic and musical activities. They learn to share ideas with their friends and to take turns in using materials. They learn to help others, and they grow in independence by helping them selves. They develop physically through healthy activity and through learning good health habits.

The aims and activities of nursery school are very much like those of kindergarten, but nursery school children are younger and less independent. Classes must be smaller, and the parents must work more closely with the teachers.

EUROPE

In Europe in the late 1700's and early 1800's industry was growing, and women and children went to work in factories along with men. Mothers sometimes had to take their youngest children into the factories with them. Many children received little or no schooling.

One answer to this problem was the development of the infant school. The first infant school was started by Robert Owen, a Welsh cotton-mill owner. In 1816 Owen set up a system of schools for all the children under 12 in the town of NewLanark , Scotland. (Those who were 12 years old could work in the mill). They very youngest children were placed in an infant school as soon as they had learned to walk. In this school the children were treated kindly and played happily together.

Today many cities have day nurseries and day-care centres, in which children of working mothers are cared for from morning untilafternoo. These centres continue the traditio of infant schools.

Johann Amos Comenius, a Czech, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, a Swiss, believed that children learn by actually seeing, hearing and touching things rather than by reading or hearing about them.Pestalozzi thought that the purpose of education was to guide a child as he developed his natural abilities.

Friedrich Froebel, a German teacher now known as the father of the kindergarten, developed his own theory and methods of teaching young children. These he put into practice in a school he opened inBlankenburg, Germany, in 1837. He named his school a "Kindergarten', meaning "children's garden". This was the first kindergarten.

FRIEDRICH FROEBEL, a German teacher now known as the father of the kindergartean. The house, where he was born.

Froebel believed that children expressed their interests through their play. He developed a set of play materials, which he called gifts, for use in the kindergarten. The gifts included six soft, coloured balls and several wooden balls, cubes and cylinders. In addition to using the gifts, children inFroebel's kindergarten sang songs, played games in a circle, and listened to stories.

More than 50 years after Froebel's death, Maria Montessori (1870 - 1952), an Italian doctor, developed another method of teaching young children. Montessori felt that children should have independence in doing things for themselves. In Montessori's schools the children learned to arrange the equipment for themselves and keep the classroom in order.

John Dewey (1859 - 1952) an American philosopher, developed a method of teaching that became known as the progressive method. He also believed that children learn by doing. In his school, children did not simply sit in the classroom and learn from their teacher passively. Dewey's contribution can be seen in the play activities in the classroom and in the trips outside of school through which children learn and find satisfaction.

The kindergarten or nursery school teacher is usually a friendly woman who loves and understands young children. In addition to regular college lessons the training of kindergarten teacher includes special courses to help her learn to teach young children. These courses include child development, child psychology, methods of teaching the early grades, music, art, handiwork and children's literature.

Kindergarten is the first society experience away from home for a 5-year-old child. The first year at school serves as a bridge between the child's life at home and his life at school. Many kindergarten teachers visit the child's home before he goes to school. Parents go to school for conferences with the teachers and may take part in class activities such as parties and trips.

A satisfying first experience at school has a great influence on the way a child will feel about school and about learning later on.

TAXONOMY and THE LANGUAGE of FLOWERS

HOW DID FLOWERS get their common names ? The gods and goddesses of the ancient Greeks and Romans were the sources of inspiration for the names of flowers. The iris, for example, is named after the Greek goddess of the rainbow. Many flowers are named after people. With still other flowers, such as bluebells, the appearance of the flower gave the reason for the naming.

Most flowers have more than one name. Many flowers are even called by different names in different parts of the same country. You can see why using only the common names of flowers can lead to confusion more than 200 years ago. He was Carl von Linne, better known by the Latin form of his name, Carolus Linnaeus. He developed a scientific method for sorting out, or classifying, living things, both plants and animals. This science is called taxonomy.

The taxonomist classifies living things, or organisms, according to their structure, that is, the way they are built. A plant or animal must be observed with great care when it is being classified. In addition to studying both the inner and the outer structure of the organism, the taxonomist must compare it with other living things that are somewhat like it.
After it has been classified, the organism is given a pair of Latin names. The first name gives the larger group, or genus, to which the plant belong. The second name gives the smaller group, or species, within the genus. Thus any botanist from any country, knows that when he read about Crysanthemum leucanthemum, a particular daisy is meant, and no other.

Some plants are named after people, including scientists. Below are examples of some flowers that are named after people. Michel Begon was a French lawyer and amateur botanists of the late 17th century. Returning to France from the Carribean, he brought back some plant whose brightly coloured flowers made them favourite houseplants. The name of the flower is naturally begonia.

Alexander Garden was a physician who practiced in Charleston, South Carolina, U.S.A. His great interest in botany led him to a correspondence with Linnaeus and other plant scientists. The flower named after him is a very fragrant one : gardenia.

Louis Antoine de Bougainville was a French navigator and explorer who sailed around the world on a three-year voyage that began in 1766. He and his fellow explores mapped unknown areas of the Pacific Ocean, and made many botanical observations. A naturalist who took part in the expedition named a tripical plant after the navigator : bougainville.

George Kamel, or Camellus in Latin, was a missionary in the Philippines. He wrote a book about the tropical plants of those islands. Linnaeus named a plant in his honour. What is the name of the plant and its flower ? Camelia, of course.

Anders Dahl was a Swedish botanist, and from his name comes dahlia.

The name of well-known garden plant, the tulip, has a connection with Turkish history. By the 16th century, after several hundreds years of war, the Turkish sultans had conquered North Africa, the Middle East and large parts of eastern and southern Europe. In 1554 the Turks were fighting againts the Austrians. The Austrian King Ferdinand I sent a special ambassador to the Sultan in the hope of arranging a peaceful agreement. The diplomat, Augier de Busbecq, carried out his mission successfully. He also found time to observe and admire the Turkish gardens. Flowers of a kind he had never seen grew there. Some of them were brilliant red. Others were yellow. The flowers looked rather like the turban, a head-dress worn by Turkish men. To Busbecq's ears the world sounded something like "tulipan", and he used this word to name the flower. It was later shortened to "tulip". The ambassador brought tulips back to Vienna, to be planted in the royal gardens.

Rose are among the most popular gardens flowers. They are also among the most ancient flowers known. Botanists believe that the plants may have appeared in Asia as long as 60 million years ago.

The original rose plants had small, simple flowers with only five petals. Wall paintings of these roses, made about 3,500 years ago, have been found in Knossos, an ancient city on ht Greek island of Grete. Today there are hundreds of varieties of roses, in all colours and sizes.

Like so many other words, "rose" came into English from the Greek, by way of Latin. "Rhodon" was the name the ancient Greeks gave to the flower. Under the Romans, the word became "rosa".

Some people believe that the word "rhodon" or "rosa" originated from a word which meant "virgin". Some others are of the opinion that it came from Eros. One of the Greek myths tells us that Eros, the god of love, once gave a rose to Harpocrates, the god of silence. He hoped in this way to persuade Harpocrates to keep secret the love affairs of his mother, Aphrodite, the goddess of love.

The aster is one of those flowers whose name comes from its appearance. It has long petails that grow from a button like centre. To the ancient Greeks the form looked like a shining star; so the Greek word "aster", meaning "star", came into use the name of the flower.

Many tales are told to explain the origin of the name of the flower called forget-me-not. One of the best known of these tales is that of a German knight, who walked down to the bank of a river to pick flowers for his beloved. The knight fell into the swift-flowing stream, and as he was swept away he managed to hand the flowers to the lady, crying out as he did so, "Forget me not !".

Are a scientist ?

IF WE ASK you whether you are a scientist, perhaps you will reply, "No, I'm not a scientist." Your answer may be true, in the sense that you are not a person whose job or career has to do with a scientific activity.

In one sense, a science means an orderly system of facts that have been learned from careful study of the world around us. These facts have been divided into several separate sciences, each dealing with a different part of learning, the study of plants, the study of heavenly bodies, and so on.

But science is more than this orderly system of facts learned from a careful study of the world. It is also a method of thinking and reasoning, a way of seeking the truth. When we speak of the scientific spirit, we mean the love of learning and the desire to use this learning to help all men.

When a person uses the scientific method he does not judge people and form ideas about them because they are of a certain race or religion or from a certain country. He is not againts people with ideas or beliefs that are different from his own. Using the scientific method, he would form a judgement only after very careful study. He would try to explain a fact, condition or happening only after he had watched it carefully and asked many questions about it and was certain that the answers were correct.

In this broad sense of meaning, any reasonable man can be called a scientist. You too can be called a scientist if you have the scientific spirit, that is, can use the scientific method of thinking and reasoning in facing a problem. You are a scientist in this sense if you can always be objective in judging a fact, not mixing the facts youare trying to find with your personal wishes or prejudices.

A scientist must follow the facts obtained through his observations and experiments whether or not they prove his opinion to be true. Science aims to find objective truth, not to seek for excuses to satisfy one's wishful thinking.

Not all people use the scientific method to form judgements. Some find it easier to agree with the opinions of a few well-known people rather than a question these opinions or think for themselves.

A true scientist always tries to explain a condition or happening only after he has watched it carefully, learned all the facts that have to do with it, and asked many questions about these facts. Then, to be certain that his ideas are correct, the scientist must prove them by further study. He should have an open mind and is always ready to let other scientists test his ideas or discovery.

So, even though in the functional sense of meaning you may be not a scientist, you can have the scientific spirit and follow the scientific method of thinking. It is always good to do so.

YOUR CHILD AND HIS FEARS

IS YOUR CHILD AFRAID OF ? He/she should be, because fear is a normal part of growing up. The child who is willing to do anything has just as many fears as the child who is so afraid that he does nothing.

The only humans who are not afraid are babies. But they quickly learn how to be afraid. Kevin, a boy of six, had always been happy to go to bed. He suddenly became a fraid of the dark. Now he always wanted a light in his bedroom. Some times he walked around the house at night and turned on other lights. His mother thought that he would quickly forget his fear, but after six months she talked to her doctor. The physician talked with Kevin. He then told the mother that a baby sister had told Kevin about "the sandman" who comes in the dark to sprinkle sand in children's eye to make them sleepy. Kevin turned the lights on in order that "the sandman" wouldn't sprinkle sand in his eyes.

When Kevin's mother understood why he was afraid of the dark, she told the boy that the sandman was no real; he was only an imaginary character in a story for small children.

Fear helps us to be careful when there is a possibility of physical danger. Because a child is afraid of water, he is careful when he is swimming. The child who is afraid of falling is careful when he climbs a tree.

Fear can increase our physical and mental energy. Because of fear, a boy who was only 45 kilogrammes lifted the back end of a car to rescue his brother from under it.

What happens to the body when a person is afraid ? The heart works harder and pumps more blood to the muscles. The person breathes more quickly so that the body receives more oxygen. The pupils of the eye become smaller so that the person can see better. The liver releases more sugar so that the body has more enery. Now the person is ready to flight or to run from the danger.

What kind of fears do children have ? Arthurs J. Jersild, a psychologist investigated the fears of children from five to twelve years of age. He found that 21 % of them were afraid of mystery, the supernatural and death; 14 % were afraid of strange places and of being alone in the dark.

There are seven questions you can ask yourself to find out whether your child has normal fears or unreasonable ones.

1. Does your child always behave properly in any situation in which he finds himself ?

2. Does he behave like other children who are the same age as he is, or does he seems much younger or

to be controlling himself too much ?

3. Has he been making progress or are his speech and school-work getting worse ?

4. Has his behaviour changed recently ?

5. How long has he had his fear ?

6. If people try to help him, does he listen to them or does he refuse to listen to them ?

7. If he overcomes some of his fears, does he quickly find other things to be afraid of ?

A small child is generally afraid of sudden noises. He migt be afraid if people play too roughly with him. As he gets to know the people in his house, he might be afraid when he is left with a baby sister. However, as he gets to know more and more people he will forget this fear.

When he starts walking he doesn't want to be left alone for a long time. His understanding of the world around him is limited; his imagination is well-developed. He might become upset at certain sounds like a ringing telephone, thunder or even a barking dog.

Before he goes to school, he may be afraid of animals, especially cats and dogs. If he has a pet, it will help to overcome his fear. Sometimes moving from one house to another can frighten a child.

How can you help your child when he has these normal fears ? Have understanding of these fears because they are normal, but don't try to protect your child too much. Don't be like the mother who used to sit with her child in the kindergarten class so he wouldn't be afraid. Your child has to lear to be independent.

After the age of five a child's fear are usually based on reality. Now he enjoys making his parents afraid ! He is still afraid of the doctor giving him an injection, of being hit by older boy or of falling from the roof or a tree.

A child is influenced by his parents. If the mother is afraid when she is alone and often checks that doors and windows are shut and is upset by every sound at night, the child will also have fears that are not normal.

Parents should try to understand that a child's fears are real to him. A young child who has heard a strange noise can be just as afraid as a child who has been attacked by a fierce dog. Don't let your child see violent television films, or animals that are wounded or other frightening things. If your child sees a car accident, ask him to tell you about it as soon as possible.

Willy, who was four, was very frightened of crippled and blind people. Is this normal ? Child psychologists say "Yes". Young children are often afraid of physical injuries; some of them think that they will receive the same injuries as a punishment if they do something wrong. To help them, adults must anwer their questions so they can understand.

Four-year-old children are usually very afraid of death. Parents must help their child by being patient and understanding.

What is the best way to overcome fear ? The child who has learned to walk in spite of fallling and getting hurt will be able to overcome his fear of falling. Children must learn to face their fear and then to overcome it. This is very necessary as a preparation for every day life in the future.

What can we do in our spare time ?

EVERY BODY HAS spare time. Of course, some people have more than others. Many people don't know how to use this spare time and they find life very dull and boring.

Some students spend their spare time lying down, though they are not sleepy, and day-dreaming; others fool around without any purpose.

The best way to fill spare time is by doing some fruitful activity such as a hobby or sport. Such an activity can be done individually or with a group.

In some countries, for instance, Germany, the U.S.A. and Australia, facilities for extra curricular activities are supplied by the schools. The students can choose which activity they want to take part in. There are sports clubs, art clubs and social clubs, and they are usually guided by experiencec teachers.

In some towns and cities there are Youth Centres, Scouts and other organizations in which we can get together during our spare time. There are many activities that can be done together such as playing games (football, badminton, and so on), self-defence, going on a picnic and camping.

Of course we can't always be with our friends. When we are alone, we can do individual activities. There are many things that can be done such as collecting stamps, writing prose or poetry, knitting, sewing, swimming, listening to music or learning about religion.

Photography is a good hobby, though it is expensive if we take it seriously. However, we can always start by using a cheap camera.

Some activities are more relaxing and need less effort than others. Some demand a competitive spirit. We must choose the activities for our spare time so they don't interfere with school or daily chores. Of course the activity must be suited to our pocket.

So that we don't easily get bored, we have to choose activities that will make it possible for us to meet people and experience a different environment. As a result, our horizons will be broadened.

If you are still at school, this is the best time for trying different kinds of activities. These activities will be an investment for your future life at university or in society.

BE HAPPY PARENTS

THE HABIT OF sleeping at night is the result of training. It is not a gift from nature. A newborn baby sleeps all the time, with short interruptions which occur just as often at night as in day time. So the very small child, even more than the adult, needs to learn the habit of sleeping at certain times. To make your child accustomed to sleeping at appropriate times, you should follow the following rules :

(1). Teach him to end the day calmly. Let him play quiet games, or take him on your lap and tell him a story or show him pictures in a book. Movies and television disturb a child's sleep just as they do that of teenagers.;

(2). Put your child to bed at the same time every night. Don't let him stay up after this time.;

(3). Have something that you always do just before the child goes to sleep, so that he knows when it is his bedtime. It can be giving him a bath, folding his clothes on a certain chair, getting his books ready for the morning, if he goes to school, or a quarter of an hour's reading in bed. Then at 8 o'clock or 9, or 9:30 (but never later), put the light out with no argument.

I know a baby a few months old who was given a music box. His mother used it when the small child was ready to sleep. As the baby heard the music, he got used to going to sleep.

Never send your child to bed as a punishment. Sleep must be looked on as a pleasure, and bedtime as a happy occasion. Don't make the mistake, either, of letting a child lie in bed after it is time to get up. Of course, it is pleasing to the mother to work while her child is still in bed, but the little one may start bad habits, such as biting his nails or wetting the bed.

If your baby doesn't want to go to sleep, and cries or moves about in his bed, decide first whether he has a trouble with hist stomach or there is an open safety pin hurting him. When you have found nothing wrong, look for the psychological reasons.

Any small child can became anxious or frightened. People say that a baby's fear of the dark comes from our ancestors. Primitive people feared the dark. To prevent the mysterious powers of the night from harming them, they developed some beliefs involving evil spirits. Deep down in our unconscious mind, we all have the same fear. A child feels more than an adult. If he is three or four years of age, he will say that he is afraid of "devils, wolves or thieves." It is a way of giving a reason for his fear. Hedoen't know why he is afraid. In this case you should give him confidence. Sit by his bed. Hold his hand and talk to him. He needs protection. If you take advantage of his fear, you will only make it worse.

Newborn babies can only show their feelings by crying. "I never leave a child to cry," says the director of a childcare clinic in Paris. The director is a psychiatrist. He knows that a child from the time it is born, can suffer from vague, hidden anxiety. This is the first sign of fear.

He once had to look after a baby for a few days. "I took a piece of his mother's clothing, and wrapped it around the child. You could see he knew the cloth, perhaps because of its familiar smell. The baby went to sleep at once."

If you have to leave a small child who is sensitive or restless, try wrapping him in something you have worn. He will feel as if you are protecting him. This method will be almost as good as your presence.

Whatever makes the child feel safe helps to put him to sleep. If the child sleeps alone in a room, leave the door wide open. He will hear voices and familiar household noises, see a bit of light, and feel "protected". The child will sleep best behind a screen, through which he can see something of what is going on around him.

Normal household noises do not disturb a baby. The child used to sleeping in a silent room becomes easily upset by household noises.

If the baby becomes used to being rocked, the mother loses some of her freedom because she always has to spend time making the baby go to sleep.

When travelling, take all the bedtime things your child is used to : his playthings, blankets, brush and comb. The articles will make a strange place seem like home for the little one.

Naturally you would prefer him not to such his thumb. Try and persuade your child to give up this bad habit, but don't try too hard, for this, too, has its part in thecornforting bedtime "ceremony" like the toys he holds in his hand, or the doll that shares her bed.

An afternoon sleep is good for children of all ages. An hour's rest after a meal, even without going to sleep, also helps teenagers to work better at school.

Refusal to go to sleep (or to eat) is often the only way your child can make you know he is unhappy. When he uses such a refusal as a protest, it is not always good to tell him that he is naughty. If he complains . It is because something which he does not understand has disturbed him. It might be the arrival of a new baby, or his parents having an argument.

If you want your child to sleep peacefully and be happy, avoid arguments and quarrels. Love each other. Be happy parents.

Internal control plays an important role in your business

Internal control is the general methodology by which management is carried on within an organization also any of the numerous devices for supervising and directing an operation or operations generally.

Internal control is a basic factor operating in one form or another in the administration of every organization, business or otherwise. Although sometimes identified with the administrative organism itself, it is often characterized as the nervous system that activates overall operating policies and keeps them within practicable performance ranges. A particular system of internal control, notwithstanding its superficial resemblance to common patterns of organization and management, is usually unique in detail, having developed around individuals with varying capacities of supervision and with varying abilities to delegate or assume authority. Read more...

Seals: Excellent Swimmers and Best Friend of the Eskimos

For the Eskimo who lives in the lands around the Arctic Sea, the seal is a very important animal. From the seal he can get money of the things he needs to live. He saves the skin to furnish material for his boots and clothes, and even to make the cover for a small boat. His wife cooks the meat of the seal and uses the oil obtained from the animal in her lamps, to produce light and heat. Without the seal, the Eskimo could not live in areas where agriculture is impossible. Today, although methods of catching seals have improved, the Eskimo still depends upon it for his existence.

Seals are mammals. They have warm blood and breathe air. Their offspring are born on land. But they spend most of their time swimming in the water, hunting for fish. The seal is fully adapted by Nature to life in the sea. A thick layer of fat protects the warmth in its blood. It can close its eyes and ears when it dives. Its lungs hold enough air to allow it to stay under the water for several minutes. Read more....